Phonology describes the sound structure of
a language; morphology describes the structure of words; and syntax describes
the uses of words in phrases and sentences. To explain the place of stressed
syllables in different words we need to consider facts about sounds, word
forms, and syntactic classes.
1. IS STRESS
PREDICTABLE?
In some languages the position of stress
in a word is invariable. In Czech and Finnish it is always the first syllable
of a word which is most prominent; in Polish the next-to-last syllable is
stressed; in French, insofar as there is any stress difference at all, the last
syllable is generally the most prominent. In languages like these, where stress
is fixed on a particular syllable and therefore predictable, stress cannot
differentiate meanings. In contrast, Spanish and Russian have sets of words
which differ only in the position of stress. How about English?
English
is not like Czech, Finnish, Polish, or French. We have already seen that the
stress of a polysyllabic word may be on the first syllable (lcannibal), the second (alrena), the third (afterlnoon), or some later syllable. In a general sense stress is
variable in English. To be sure, stress is invariable for any specific word.
Although there are dialect differences in stress ( garage is stressed on the
second syllable in North America, on the first syllable everywhere else) just
as there are dialect differences in vowels (either, half, roof, for example), we are not free to put
stress on whatever syllable we want. If a person still learning English as a
new language says lbeginner instead of belginner, those who already know the language consider it a
mispronunciation, even though the meaning is probably clear enough. In English
words stress is not fixed – but does that mean that it is not predictable?
On
the other hand stress does not play a large role in differentiating words. Billow and below, reefer and refer are sometimes cited as
pairs of words which differ mostly in position of stress, but there are not
many such pairs. There are somewhat more pairs like the noun linsult and the verb inlsult, noun labstract, verb and adjective ablstract, a type which we
examine later, sets of words which are semantically related but grammatically
different.
Every
English dictionary uses some kind of key to pronunciation. Following the
orthographic form of every word that is listed there is some kind of respelling
in the special key to indicate the pronunciation of the word. Such a respelling
implies that the usual orthography is not sufficiently regular for us to deduce
the pronunciation from the ordinary spelling, and of course there is
considerable truth in the implication; the irregularities and inconsistencies
of English spelling are well known (though sometimes they are exaggerated).
One
part of the respelling, for polysyllabic words, is an indication of stress. For
every word of more than one syllable the dictionary’s respelling indicates
which is the stressed syllable; for example maintain
(m!n.t!nl). Here again there is an obvious implication: that stress is
completely unpredictable, that a reader cannot look at a written word and
correctly figure out where the stress is. The implication is not entirely
accurate; while it is not possible to predict the stress in all English words, there
are many which follow general principles.
There
are general rules which account for the place of stress in numerous words,
though not in all the words of the language. Many of these rules you know
already, though not in a completely conscious way. Words which end in -tion, such as constitution, composition, interruption, proclamation, simplification – literally
hundreds of words – are stressed on the vowel before this ending. Similarly,
words with a final -ity have
stress on the vowel before the ending (asininity, humidity, mediocrity, relativity, sentimentality, sentimentality). These are two small generalizations that can be made about
stress placement. There are other, more subtle ones which, by and large, are
known to speakers of the language. For example, the following words may be new
to you (or half-new), but you can probably stress each one of them correctly:
comatula
lobatic metrify
polyphase spiriferous
2. STRESS RULES
In the remainder of this chapter we
explore the rules – that is, general statements – regarding the place of stress
in different groups of words. We will see that there are limits to the rules.
Each rule has its particular domain; not everything is predictable.
Stress
rules are based on three kinds of information: syntactic, morphological, and
phonological.
Syntactic information The place of stress in a word depends partly on what part of
speech it is. The noun ‘insult is stressed differently from the verb in’sult. Similarly, compare the adjective con’tent and the noun ‘contents, the noun ‘present (‘gift’) and the adjective ‘present
(‘not absent’) with the verb prelsent. The words we examine here are nouns, verbs, and adjectives,
and somewhat different rules apply to each of these parts of speech.
Morphological information We have seen that the suffixes +tion and +ity have
a role in the location of stress. Every word has a morphological composition. A
word may be simple,
consisting of a single base: for example, arm, baby, circle, fat, manage. Some words, like armchair, babysit, ice-cold, square dance are compounds, consisting of two
bases together (whether our orthographic conventions prefer them written as a
single word, or with a hyphen, or with a space between the parts). Finally,
some words are complex,
consisting of a prefix
plus a base (disarm, encircle, mismanage, renew) or a base plus a suffix (babyish, fatten, happiness, management). A word may contain
prefix + base + suffix (mismanagement, unhappiness), base + base + suffix (babysitting, square dancer), base + suffix + suffix ( fattening, sharpener), and so forth. The morphological composition has a role in
determining stress. We will see that different kinds of suffixes, especially,
are important in determining the place of stress. Strictly speaking, a prefix
or a suffix must have a meaning or a function, as in the examples above. For
the purpose of locating the stressed syllable in a word we consider certain
elements which occur at the beginning of numerous words, ‘prefixes,’ and
elements which often occur in final place, ‘suffixes.’
Phonological information The place of stress in particular words depends in part on the
nature of the last two syllables, the ult and penult. We need to consider
whether a syllable has a free vowel or not and the number of consonants, if
any, which close the syllable. Since phonological facts interact with syntactic
and morphological facts, we shall see that rules about vowels and consonants
are different for nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
To
review, a free vowel is one which can occur at the end of a one-syllable word.
Free vowels are illustrated in these words:
see, seat sue,
suit spa, calm
bay, bait go,
goat law, laud
by, bite cow,
scout toy, void
Notice that in each of the following words
the last syllable, the ult, has a free vowel:
agree remain
rely destroy cellophane anecdote
And in each of the next words the
next-to-last syllable, the penult, has a free vowel:
Arena aroma
diploma hiatus horizon
In the next group of words the penult ends
with a consonant – the syllable division is between two consonants:
enigma veranda
parental detergent amalgam
But in the following words the penult does
not end with a consonant and does not have a free vowel:
abacus
cinema generous melody
evident
In the rest of this chapter we will be
weaving in and out among the three kinds of phenomena, syntactic,
morphological, and phonological.
3. NEUTRAL
SUFFIXES
It was noted that when a suffix of Old
English origin is added to a word, stress does not change; e.g. lneighbor, lneighborly, lneighborliness, lneighborhood. We say
that suffixes of Old English origin (and a few others) are neutral: they are added to
independent words and have no effect on the stress. For example, the words ablsorbing, linteresting, prelvailing, and lterrifying have the
same stressed syllables as ablsorb, linterest, prelvail, and lterrify, respectively. This #ing is a neutral suffix, and so are #hood, #ly, and #ness, illustrated above. (A neutral suffix will be marked with the
boundary symbol # before it.) Although most neutral suffixes are of Old English
origin, this does not mean that the words to which they are added are
necessarily of Old English origin.
4. TONIC ENDINGS
Nouns which end in -oon typically have stress on the ending: balloon, raccoon, macaroon, saloon, etc. An ending like
this is a tonic ending. Most words that have tonic endings have been borrowed from
Modern French, but not all. Some, like absentee, have been formed in English with a suffix of French origin.
debonaire, millionaire
refugee, internee
Congolese, Vietnamese
brunette, kitchenette
antique, technique
5. THE BASIC
STRESS RULE FOR VERBS
Once we have recognized the neutral
suffixes and the tonic endings we are ready for more general statements about
stress. Let’s consider the following sets of verbs:
1a 2a
3
agree diagnose
abolish
delay exercise
consider
exclude intimidate
develop
cajole monopolize
imagine
invite persecute
remember
pronounce ridicule solicit
1b 2b
attract compliment
consist gallivant
depend manifest
exempt
involve
reverse
Note that in groups 1a and 1b the last
syllable, the ult, is
stressed; in 2a and 2b the third syllable from the end, the antepenult, is stressed; and in
group 3 the penult,
the next-to-last syllable, is the stressed syllable. Why?
The
verbs in group 1 have what we may call a stressable ult: either the ult has a
free vowel (1a) or it ends with at least two consonants (1b). Furthermore, each
verb in the group consists of just two syllables. The ult is stressed.
In
group 2 also each verb has a heavy ult, because of the free vowel (2a) or
because of the cluster of consonants at the end (2b). These verbs have three or
more syllables. The antepenult is stressed. (In centuries past they were
stressed on the ult. Even today, in Scotland and in the Caribbean, one may hear
diagnose or dominate stressed on the ult.)
Each
word in group 3 has an unstressable ult: the ult contains a checked vowel
followed by not more than one consonant. The penult is stressed. This general
statement, or rule, for what we have observed for verbs can be put into the
form of a decision tree:
a. Exercise with verbs
All of the verbs below follow this basic
rule. Note which syllable is stressed in each one and mark it 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b,
or 3, according to the scheme above. (There aren’t many examples of group 2b
here because there aren’t many such verbs in the language.)
adopt exonerate
produce
answer furnish
remark
covet
inhabit substitute
dehumidify mechanize supplement
exhaust offend transcribe
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6. THE BASIC
STRESS RULE FOR NOUNS
The first question to ask about verbs when
determining the position of stress is: ‘Is the ult stressable or not?’ Nouns
are different. The first question to ask about a noun is: ‘How many syllables
does the noun have?’ The next question is: ‘Does the ult have a free vowel or
not?’ It doesn’t matter how many consonants occur in final position. Examine
these sets of nouns.
1a 2
3a
alcove appetite
affidavit
membrane hypotenuse
aroma
statute institute
horizon
termite porcupine
hypnosis
textile vicissitude
papyrus
1b 3b
cavern appendix
focus intestine
menace memorandum
premise synopsis
ticket veranda
3c
camera
citizen
deficit
gelatin
pelican
Note, first, that each noun of groups 1a
and 1b has just two syllables. The penult is stressed whether the ult vowel is
free (1a) or not (1b) – but see the note at the end of this chapter. If there
are more than two syllables in the noun, it makes a difference whether the ult
has a free vowel or not. If the ult vowel is free, as in group 2, the
antepenult is stressed. If the ult vowel is not a free vowel, as in group 3, we
ask if the penult is stressable. The penult is stressable if it has a free
vowel (3a) or ends with a consonant (3b). If the penult is not stressable, the
antepenult is stressed (3c).
The
basic noun rule can be summarized in this decision tree:
b. Exercise with nouns
Note the stress in the following nouns and
mark each one as 1a, 1b, 2, 3a, 3b, or 3c, according to how it fits the
classification above.
javelin closet
diploma
idea satellite
veteran
bonanza opera platinum
harmonica hypothesis
neuritis
tabloid formaldehyde
vestibule
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7. RULES FOR
ADJECTIVES
We do not need a new rule for the stress
of adjectives. There are essentially two types of adjectives, so far as the
place of stress is concerned: one type follows the stress rule for verbs, the
other the stress rule for nouns.
Type I Observe
these sets of adjectives:
(1a) contrite
(2a) asinine (3) academic
inane bellicose decrepit
obscene erudite intrepid
serene grandiose periodic
(1b) absurd
(2b) difficult
correct manifest
distinct moribund
Note that these are exactly parallel to
the grouping of verbs in section 11.5.
Group 1 adjectives have two syllables and the ult is stressable, either because
of the free vowel (1a) or the final cluster of consonants (1b); the ult is
stressed. Group 2 adjectives have more than two syllables and a stressable ult,
because of the free vowel (2a) or the final consonant cluster (2b); the
antepenult is stressed. Group 3 contains adjectives with an unstressable ult
(almost always -ic or -id or -it); the penult is stressed.
Type II adjectives end with one
of these suffixes: +al, +ar, +ant/ent, or +ous. Note that these suffixes are all monosyllabic, do not have a
free vowel, and the vowel is initial in the suffix. We refer to these as weak
suffixes. In adjectives with these suffixes either the penult or the antepenult
is stressed, depending on the nature of the penult. The following exercise will
help you to determine the general rule.
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c. Exercise with nouns
11c Exercise
with adjectives
(a) Mark the stress in each of these
words:
fatal global polar stellar cogent decent
dormant nervous
General statement: If an adjective has a
weak suffix preceded by a base of
just one syllable, stress is on the
________.
(b) Each of the words below has a base of
more than one syllable. Do three
things:
1.
If the vowel of the penult is a free
vowel, put a macron over the vowel letter, e.g. complacent;
2.
If the vowel of the penult is followed by
two consonants (a consonant cluster which cannot occur in word-initial
position), draw a line between the two consonant letters, e.g. abun|dant;
3.
Use the tick to show whether the penult or
the antepenult is stressed, e.g. comlplacent, relluctant, ladamant.
ac ci
den tal re luc tant
pe ri phe
ral
e ter nal
mag ni fi
cent a na
lo gous
vi gi lant
bar ba rous
a bun dant
ma lig nant ge ne
rous a nec
do tal
We note that the penult is stressed if it meets either of these
conditions:
(1)
(2)
If the penult meets neither of these conditions, the antepenult
is stressed.
Adjectives of this type are just like
nouns which have a checked vowel in the ult. In fact, the weak suffix +ant/ent appears in nouns as well as adjectives; compare detergent, occupant, participant.
To
go a bit farther, we may consider the following noun endings also weak
suffixes:
+a mica, aroma, enigma, cinema
+ance/ence hindrance, reluctance, evidence
+is thesis, neurosis,
synopsis, emphasis
+on nylon, skeleton
+um fulcrum, platinum
+us circus, hiatus
8. EXTENDING THE
BASIC STRESS RULES
Consider these verbs and adjectives:
copy envy marry worry
easy happy
ugly
argue continue issue rescue
borrow follow swallow hollow narrow
yellow
The words in the three lines end with
vowels that we have written, respectively, as /i/, /u/, and /o/. Are these free
vowels? that different speakers give different answers to this question. In
final position there is no contrast between a free vowel /ii/ and a checked /c/, a free /uu/ and a checked /m/, nor
between /ou/ and /o/. For the stress rules these three vowels in final position
act like checked vowels. The ult is not stressable and therefore stress falls
on the penult, just as it does in such verbs and adjectives as consider, deposit, comic, valid.
Similarly,
in nouns the ult is light if it contains one of these three vowels without a
consonant following, as in the following examples:
albino
macaroni commando
jujitsu avenue revenue
In the first four of these words the
penult is stressable, because it has a free vowel or is a closed syllable, and
so receives the stress. If the ult were strong, the antepenult would be
stressed. In the last two words neither ult nor penult is stressable; the
antepenult is stressed.
Rule:
Final /i u o/ count as checked vowels, making the ult unstressable.
A word with one of these vowels in final position has stress on
the penult or antepenult according to the usual rules.
9. MIXED ENDINGS
Neutral suffixes are mostly of Old English
origin. Other suffixes have generally entered English from French, Latin, or
Greek, originally as parts of words borrowed from those languages. But often
these suffixes have come to have a life of their own in English and are used to
form new English words. So it happens that some suffixes behave like heavy
endings in words of foreign origin but act like neutral suffixes in words which
have been created in English. Notice the following sets of words:
(a) agreement
(b) compliment
encouragement implement
confinement document
development impediment
punishment monument
In set (a) -ment is a neutral suffix. It
is added to words which stand alone; stress in each suffixed word is on the
same syllable as in the independent word to which the suffix is added. The
words in set (b) are regularly stressed, but by a different principle: stress
is on the antepenult of each word. In effect, these are two different suffixes,
and they should be labeled differently. We might refer to them as -ment1 and -ment2, but these labels do not tell what the suffixes have to do
with the position of stress. A better way is to use different symbols for
different kinds of suffixes. So we write #ment
and +ment, where ‘#’ indicates that what follows is
a neutral suffix and ‘+’ marks a suffix (or a
special ending) which is not neutral.
The
following groups of words illustrate three apparent suffixes which, like -ment, turn out to be three pairs of suffixes.
In each pair one suffix is neutral and the other is a strong ult.
(a) materialize
(b)
apologize
naturalize
antagonize
characterize mechanize
Americanize monopolize
popularize hypothesize
(a) federalist
(b) anarchist
industrialist
botanist
modernist
ornithologist
revolutionist
protagonist
violinist
scientist
(a) nationalism
(b)
ostracism
imperialism recidivism
parallelism somnambulism
radicalism syllogism
secularism ventriloquism
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