Verbal
morphology
Verbal morphology typically involves many more grammatical
meanings than noun morphology.
a.
TENSE refers to the relation between the time of the situation described
by the verb and the moment of speech.
You’re probably already familiar
with the distinction between PAST, PRESENT, and, FUTURE. Some languages only
make a two-way distinction in their morphology, between past and NONPAST or between future and
NONFUTURE. For example, English verbs indicate tense by the presence or absence
of -(e)d. The presence of -(e)d indicates past tense, its absence indicates nonpast, since
this form is used both for present and future situations.
(2) a. I walk-ed
b. I (will) work-Ø
Future
time is distinguished from present by a separate auxiliary verb, will,
not by tense morphology on the verb. (the null sign Ø in example (2) indicates the absence of any suffix in a
particular position. Linguists sometimes
talk about ZERO MORPHEMES.) In addition to all these possibilities, languages
sometimes subdivide past tense into RECENT PAST (e.g., earlier today) and
REMOTE PAST (e.g., before today), or even three or four degrees of remoteness
from the present moment.
b. ASPECT refers to the time of a situation in
relation to its context. The two major distinctions that languages make are
between PERFECTIVE and IMPERFECTIVE aspect. In imperfective aspect, the
internal temporal structure of a situation (its beginning, middle, or end) is
being presented as important, while in perfective, only the situation as a
whole is important. Quite often, imperfective is used for present events (which
are not complete and whose internal structure is therefore of interest) while
perfective is used for past events (which are usually presented as complete
wholes). However imperfect can also be used in past time, in context like this:
(3) Imperfective perfective
While I was wandering through the maze, I noticed a strange
design on one wall.
Since
the time of noticing occurs entirely
inside the time span of the wandering, the internal structure of the wandering
is important. Thus wander would be
presented in imperfective and notice in perfective. So, often aspect presents the time of each verb with
respect to the other verbs in context, not to a fixed present moment.
Sometimes, language also distinguishes
between two types of imperfective aspect, called HABITUAL and PROGRESSIVE. Habitual
aspect refers to situations that occur repeatedly or typically, such as
‘He is empties the trash on Tuesdays’. progressive refers to one-time or
on-going events, such as ‘He is emptying the trash now’
You will also encounter something called
PERFECT ASPECT. It corresponds in meaning to the English auxiliary verb ‘have’
and is often translated ‘have already’. It is not the same as perfective
aspect; in fact, it is really more like a tense than an aspect.
aspect n
a term used to
denote the activity, event, or state described by a verb, for example whether
the activity is ongoing or completed. Two types of aspect are commonly
recognized:
A.
lexical
aspect (or inherent
lexical aspect) refers to the internal semantics
of verbs, which can be grouped into a number
of categories:
1 states,
verbs that refer to unchanging conditions (see STATIVE VERB), for example be,
have, want
2 activities,
verbs referring to processes with no inherent beginning or end point, for
example play, walk, breathe
3 accomplishments,
which are durative (last for a period of time) but have an inherent end
point, for example read a book, write a novel
4 achievements,
which are nondurative and have an inherent end point, for example finish,
realize, arrive
B. grammatical aspect, on the other hand, refers to the
resources provided by a language (such as verbal auxiliaries, prefixes and
suffixes) to encode different perspectives taken by a speaker towards
activities, events, and states.
Languages make
available different options for realizing aspect grammatically.
English has two
grammatical aspects: PROGRESSIVE and PERFECT.
see
also TENSE1
c.
MOOD refers to the relationship between the situation reported by the
verb and reality. I introduce only two types here: INDICATIVE (used for
statement and questions, and concerned with
how things actually are) and IMPERATIVE (used for commands, and
concerned with how the speaker would like things to be)
mood
a set of contrasts which are often shown by
the form of the verb and which express the speaker’s or writer’s attitude to
what is said or written.
Three moods have often been distinguished:
1 indicative mood: the form of the verb used in
DECLARATIVE SENTENCEs or
QUESTIONs. For example:
She sat down.
Are you coming?
2 imperative mood:
the form of the verb in IMPERATIVE SENTENCEs. For example:
Be quiet!
Put it on the table!
In English, imperatives do not have tense or perfect
aspect (see ASPECT)
but they may be used in the progressive aspect. For
example:
Be waiting for me at five.
3 subjunctive mood: the form of the
verb often used to express uncertainty, wishes, desires, etc. In contrast to
the indicative mood, the subjunctive usually refers to non-factual or
hypothetical situations. In English, little use of the subjunctive forms
remains. The only remaining forms are:
a. be
(present
subjunctive), were (past subjunctive) of be
b. the stem form, e.g. have,
come, sing of other verbs (present subjunctive
only)
The use of the subjunctive form is still sometimes found
in:
a that clauses after
certain verbs. For example:
It is required that she be present.
I demand that he come at once.
b past subjunctive of be in
if clauses. For example:
If I were you, I’d go there.
c in some fixed expressions.
For example:
So be it.
d. agreement. The most common type of AGREEMENT
is morphology on the verb that indicates something about the subject. For example, in English present tense verbs with
third person singular subjects carry an –s suffix. If the subject is some other
person or number, the suffix is absent.
(4) a. she/he/it ride-s fifteen miles a day.
b. I/we/you/they
ride-Ø fifteen miles a day.
We say that English verbs
‘agree with their subjects in person and number’.
Stem
and affixes
Morphology has to do with
the various ways that morphemes are combined to form words.
Stems usually have richer semantics than
affixes. That is, stems usually have lexical
meaning, while affixes often (not always) have grammatical meaning.
Thus, stems can usually be glossed by a translation equivalent, while affixes
often require technical linguistic terms.
Stems are usually members of OPEN
CLASSES, while affixes are almost always members of CLOSED CLASSES. ‘Open’ and
‘closed’ refer partly to the number of members in a class, but more to the
possibility of adding new members to the class.
Finally, affixes are always BOUND, while
stems may be either bound or FREE. When we say that morpheme is free, we mean
that it can occur by itself as a word. A morpheme that is bound cannot be a
word by itself but must always be attached to some other morphemes.
In summary the distinction between stems
and affixes is a distinction between the central and peripheral parts of a
word. The normal characteristics of stems and affixes are summarized in the following chart:
STEMS AFFIXES
Usually lexical meaning usually grammatical meaning
Usually from open classes almost always from closed classes
Either bound or free always bound
open class n
also open set
a group of words (a WORD CLASS), which contains an
unlimited number of items.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are open-class
words. New words
can be added to these classes, e.g. laser,
e-commerce, chatroom.
The word classes conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns
consist of
relatively few words, and new words are not usually
added to them.
These are called closed
classes, or closed sets.
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